References

Carla — rewritten September 2026

Works cited on the main page.

Bakusic, J. et al. (2021). Role of NR3C1 and SLC6A4 methylation in the HPA axis regulation in burnout. Journal of Affective Disorders, 295, 505-513.

Birnie, M.T. et al. (2022). Time of day influences stress hormone response to ketamine. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 34(6), e13194.

Bornstein, S.R., Allolio, B., Arlt, W., Barthel, A., Don-Wauchope, A., Hammer, G.D., Husebye, E.S., Merke, D.P., Murad, M.H., Stratakis, C.A. & Torpy, D.J. (2016). Diagnosis and treatment of primary adrenal insufficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 101(2), 364-389.

Busceti, C.L., Ferese, R., Bucci, D., Ryskalin, L., Gambardella, S., Madonna, M., Nicoletti, F. & Fornai, F. (2019). Corticosterone upregulates gene and protein expression of catecholamine markers in organotypic brainstem cultures. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20(12), 2901.

Cadegiani, F.A. & Kater, C.E. (2016). Adrenal fatigue does not exist: a systematic review. BMC Endocrine Disorders, 16(1), 48.

Chuang, D., Zsilla, G. & Costa, E. (1975). Turnover rate of tyrosine hydroxylase during trans-synaptic induction. Molecular Pharmacology, 11(6), 784-794.

Di, S., Malcher-Lopes, R., Halmos, K.C. & Tasker, J.G. (2003). Nongenomic glucocorticoid inhibition via endocannabinoid release in the hypothalamus: a fast feedback mechanism. Journal of Neuroscience, 23(12), 4850-4857.

Edwards, S., Evans, P., Hucklebridge, F. & Clow, A. (2001). Association between time of awakening and diurnal cortisol secretory activity. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 26(6), 613-622.

European Society of Endocrinology & Endocrine Society (2024). Joint clinical guideline: diagnosis and therapy of glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency. European Journal of Endocrinology, 190(5), G25-G51.

Gartside, S.E., Griffith, N.C., Kaura, V. & Ingram, C.D. (2010). The neurosteroid dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its metabolites alter 5-HT neuronal activity via modulation of GABAA receptors. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 24(11), 1717-1724.

Gupta, S., Aslakson, E., Gurbaxani, B.M. & Vernon, S.D. (2007). Inclusion of the glucocorticoid receptor in a hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis model reveals bistability. Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling, 4, 8.

Handa, R.J. & Weiser, M.J. (2014). Gonadal steroid hormones and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 35(2), 197-220.

Herman, J.P. et al. (2008). Chronic stress plasticity in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Progress in Brain Research, 170, 353-364.

Herman, J.P. (2020). Brain mechanisms of HPA axis regulation: neurocircuitry and feedback in context. Stress, 23(6), 617-632.

Insel, T.R. (2013). Transforming diagnosis. NIMH Director's Blog, 29 April 2013.

Isaksson, J. et al. (2015). Polymorphisms in FKBP5 are associated with ADHD and diurnal cortisol levels. Acta Paediatrica, 104(9), 910-915.

Ivanova, T. & Beyer, C. (2003). Estrogen regulates tyrosine hydroxylase expression in the neonate mouse midbrain. Journal of Neurobiology, 54(4), 638-647.

Johansson, T., Elfverson, M., Zhou, Q. & Nyberg, F. (2010). Allosteric modulation of the NMDA receptor by neurosteroids in rat brain and the impact of long term morphine administration. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications.

Kim, H.J. & Jin, H.J. (2021). Polymorphisms in FKBP5 are associated with ADHD in Korean children. Behavioural Brain Research, 414, 113508.

Kuzmiski, J.B., Marty, V.M., Baimoukhametova, D.V. & Bains, J.S. (2010). Stress-induced priming of glutamate synapses unmasks associative short-term plasticity. Nature Neuroscience, 13(10), 1257-1264.

Labrie, F. et al. (2007). Bioavailability and metabolism of oral and percutaneous dehydroepiandrosterone in postmenopausal women. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 107(1-2), 57-69.

Leproult, R. et al. (2001). Transition from dim to bright light in the morning induces an immediate elevation of cortisol levels. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 86(1), 151-157.

Li, N. et al. (2010). mTOR-dependent synapse formation underlies the rapid antidepressant effects of NMDA antagonists. Science, 329(5994), 959-964.

Liere, P., Pianos, A., Eychenne, B., Cambourg, A., Bodin, K., Griffiths, W., Schumacher, M., Baulieu, E.-E. & Sjovall, J. (2009). Analysis of pregnenolone and dehydroepiandrosterone in rodent brain: cholesterol autoxidation is the key. Journal of Lipid Research, 50(12), 2430-2444.

Majewska, M.D., Harrison, N.L., Schwartz, R.D., Barker, J.L. & Paul, S.M. (1986). Steroid hormone metabolites are barbiturate-like modulators of the GABA receptor. Science, 232(4753), 1004-1007.

Maharjan, S., Serova, L.I. & Sabban, E.L. (2010). Membrane-initiated estradiol signalling increases tyrosine hydroxylase promoter activity with ER alpha in PC12 cells. Journal of Neurochemistry, 112(1), 42-55.

Martinelli, S. et al. (2024). Differential dynamics and roles of FKBP51 isoforms and their implications for targeted therapies. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(22), 12318.

McEwen, B.S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. New England Journal of Medicine, 338(3), 171-179.

Mintz, E.M., Marvel, C.L., Gillespie, C.F., Price, K.M. & Albers, H.E. (1999). Activation of NMDA receptors in the suprachiasmatic nucleus produces light-like phase shifts of the circadian clock in vivo. Journal of Neuroscience, 19(12), 5124-5130.

Oka, K. et al. (1985). The effect of dexamethasone on tyrosine hydroxylase activity. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 43(2-3), 139-144.

Ostrander, M.M., Ulrich-Lai, Y.M., Choi, D.C., Richtand, N.M. & Herman, J.P. (2006). Hypoactivity of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis during recovery from chronic variable stress. Endocrinology, 147(4), 2008-2017.

Popoli, M. et al. (2012). The stressed synapse: the impact of stress and glucocorticoids on glutamate transmission. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(1), 22-37.

Qaiser, M.Z., Dolman, D.E.M., Begley, D.J., Abbott, N.J., Cazacu-Davidescu, M., Corol, D.I. & Fry, J.P. (2017). Uptake and metabolism of sulphated steroids by the blood-brain barrier in the adult male rat. Journal of Neurochemistry, 142(5), 672-685.

Ramirez-Plascencia, O.D., De Luca, R., Machado, N.L.S., Eghlidi, D., Khanday, M.A., Bandaru, S.S., Raffin, F., Vujovic, N., Arrigoni, E. & Saper, C.B. (2026). A hypothalamic circuit for circadian regulation of corticosterone secretion. Nature Communications, 17, 4940.

Salter, E.W., Sunstrum, J.K., Matovic, S. & Inoue, W. (2018). Chronic stress dampens excitatory synaptic gain in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. The Journal of Physiology, 596(17), 4157-4172.

Sousa-Lima, J., Moreira, P.S., Raposo-Lima, C., Sousa, N. & Morgado, P. (2019). Relationship between obsessive compulsive disorder and cortisol: systematic review and meta-analysis. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 29(11), 1185-1198.

Vamvakopoulos, N.C. & Chrousos, G.P. (1993). Evidence of direct estrogenic regulation of human corticotropin-releasing hormone gene expression: potential implications for the sexual dimorphism of the stress response and immune/inflammatory reaction. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 92(4), 1896-1902.

Vrang, N., Larsen, P.J. & Mikkelsen, J.D. (1995). Direct projection from the suprachiasmatic nucleus to hypophysiotrophic corticotropin-releasing factor immunoreactive cells in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus demonstrated by means of Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin tract tracing. Brain Research, 684(1), 61-69.

Warrington, T.P. & Bostwick, J.M. (2006). Psychiatric adverse effects of corticosteroids. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 81(10), 1361-1367.

Witkovsky, P. (2004). Dopamine and retinal function. Documenta Ophthalmologica, 108(1), 17-40.

Woolley, C.S. & McEwen, B.S. (1992). Estradiol mediates fluctuation in hippocampal synapse density during the estrous cycle in the adult rat. Journal of Neuroscience, 12(7), 2549-2554.

Yamaji, T., Ishibashi, M., Takaku, F., Itabashi, A., Katayama, S. & Ishii, J. (1987). Serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate concentrations in secondary adrenal insufficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 65(3), 448-451.

Yehuda, R. (2002). Current status of cortisol findings in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 25(2), 341-368.